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Ecological site R062XA042SD

Lowland 22-30 PZ

Last updated: 2/06/2025
Accessed: 05/10/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 062X–Black Hills

The Black Hills (MLRA 62) is a unique, low lying mountain range situated in the midst of a mixed short and mid-grass prairie. It is a true Island in the Plains, as it has geophysical and biological attributes that are unlike the surrounding area. The Black Hills have strong floristic ties to four of the North American biomes: Cordilleran (Rocky Mountain) Forest, Northern Coniferous Forest, Eastern Deciduous Forest, and Grasslands.

MLRA 62 is approximately 3,040 square miles in size; 74 percent is located in South Dakota, and 26 percent is in Wyoming. The towns of Lead, Deadwood, Hill City, and Custer, South Dakota, are in this area. U.S. Highways 16 and 385 cross the MLRA. The Black Hills National Forest, Custer State Park, Mt. Rushmore National Monument, Jewel Cave National Monument, and Wind Cave National Park are located in this MLRA.

This area forms the core of the Black Hills and the Bear Lodge Mountains where the elevation ranges between 3,600 to 6,565 feet, however, Black Elk Peak (Harney Peak) rises to 7,242 feet. Slopes range from moderately sloping on some of the high plateaus to very steeply sloping along drainageways and on peaks and ridges. Narrow valleys generally are gently sloping to strongly sloping.

The Black Hills uplift is the product of the Laramide mountain-building episodes that produced most of the ranges in the Rocky Mountains. Uplift began near the end of the Cretaceous period, 65 million years ago and ended by 35 million years ago (Froiland 1999). The core of the Black Hills is a plutonic mass of granite with steeply dipping metamorphic rocks, primarily slate and schist, which directly surrounds the granite core. A plateau of Mississippian limestone surrounds the igneous and metamorphic rock core. The Madison limestone is broken around the outer edges of the uplifted area. The Permian Minnekahta limestone forms the outermost boundary of the area. Many other tilted sandstone, shale, and limestone units are exposed like a bathtub ring inside the steeply dipping Madison limestone.

The dominant soil orders in this MLRA are Alfisols (forest soils) and Mollisols (grassland soils). The soils in the area have a frigid or cryic soil temperature regime, a udic or ustic soil moisture regime, and mixed, micaceous, or smectitic mineralogy. They are shallow to very deep, generally well drained, and loamy in texture.

The Black Hills MLRA supports open to dense forest vegetation. Ponderosa pine is the dominant species across the Black Hills. White spruce grows at the higher elevations and along the major drainageways. Bur oak is found intermixed with pine in the northern and eastern fringes of the Black Hills, and Rocky Mountain Juniper is most common in the southern portion of the Black Hills. Aspen is of minor extent throughout the Black Hills area. Roughleaf ricegrass, slender wheatgrass, bearded wheatgrass, poverty oatgrass, Richardson’s needlegrass, and mountain ricegrass are the most common native grasses under open forest stands. The most common native shrubs are common snowberry, bearberry, common juniper, Oregon grape, and Saskatoon serviceberry.

MLRA 62 land ownership is approximately 47 percent private and 53 percent federal. Rangeland and forestland are split almost equally between private and federal ownership (47 percent each). Minor areas of land are privately owned cropland and urban development. The forestland in this area is used mainly for timber production, recreation, and grazing.

The major resource concerns are soil erosion and surface compaction caused by logging, mining, wildfires, grazing, and urban expansion. The quality of ground and surface water is another concern, especially in the northern part of the Black Hills. The primary cause is contamination from mine waste and septic systems in areas of rural development and urban expansion (USDA-NRCS Ag Handbook 296).

LRU notes

For development of ecological sites, MLRA 62 is divided into three Land Resource Units (LRU’s) or physiographic zones (A, B, C, and Y). Each LRU has a set of ecological sites that represents these zones.

The LRU is identified in the Ecological Site ID: R062XY000SD; “062X” identifies the MLRA, the next letter “Y” identifies the LRU. Note: The organization of Ecological Site ID’s will likely change in the future.

LRU-A includes the northern Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains (22-30” PZ); LRU-B includes the high elevation central core of the Black Hills (25-35” PZ); and LRU-C includes the southern portion of the Black Hills (17-21” PZ).

The Forest ecological sites are representative of sites in the Black Hills, Bear Lodge Mountains (MLRA-62), and the surrounding Dakota Hogback (MLRA-61). These sites are separated by elevation, soil temperature regimes, and slope.

The Low Mountain area includes all of the Black Hills, Bear Lodge Mountains, and Dakota Hogback below 6,200 feet in elevation (LRU’s A and C). The soils in this area have a frigid soil temperature regime.

The High Mountain area includes all of the Black Hills above 6,200 feet elevation (LRU-B). The soils in this area have a cryic soil temperature regime.

Classification relationships

USDA Land Resource Region G—Western Great Plains Range and Irrigated Region

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Level IV Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Foothills—17a
Black Hills Plateau—17b
Black Hills Core Highlands—17c

USDA Forest Service Ecological Subregions- Sections and Subsections of the Conterminous United States:
Black Hills Coniferous Forest Province—M334:
Black Hills Section—334A
Black Hills Foothills Subsection—M334Aa
Black Hills Limestone Plateau-Core Highlands Subsection—M334Ab

Ecological site concept

The Lowland-North ecological site is found throughout MLRA 62.This site is a run-in site and receive additional moisture through occasional overflow during flooding and high-water events, and to a minor extent, runoff from adjacent sites. The slopes range is from 0 to 3 percent. The soil surface layer is 4 to 20 inches in depth with a texture range of silt loam to fine sandy loam. The soils in this site are formed in stratified alluvium. This site occurs on low stream terraces and most vegetation has access to the water table.

Associated sites

R062XA020SD	Loamy Overflow - North Loamy Overflow sites may be found upslope or adjacent to the Lowland ecological sites.

R062XA020SD

Loamy Overflow - North

Loamy Overflow sites may be found upslope or adjacent to the Lowland ecological sites.

Similar sites

R062XC042SD	Lowland 17-22 Similar sites with differing precipitation levels found in different LRU's.

R062XC042SD

Lowland 17-22

Similar sites with differing precipitation levels found in different LRU's.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Fraxinus pennsylvanica (2) Acer negundo
Shrub	(1) Symphoricarpos occidentalis (2) Prunus virginiana
Herbaceous	(1) Andropogon gerardii (2) Panicum virgatum

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Physiographic features

The Lowland-North ecological site occurs on nearly level drainageways, low stream terraces, and floodplains.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Alluvial plain (2) Flood plain (3) Drainageway (4) Stream terrace
Runoff class	Negligible to medium
Flooding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	Rare to occasional
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	2,900 – 5,000 ft
Slope	3%
Ponding depth	80 in
Water table depth	80 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

MLRA 62 is in a microclimate caused by the influence of increased elevation which leads to increased precipitation, moderate air temperature, and lower wind velocities compared to the surrounding Great Plains. In general, the Black Hills climate is a continental type, cold in the winter and hot in the summer.

Growth of cool-season plants begins in April, slowing or ceasing growth by mid-August. Warm-season plants begin growth in May and continue to mid-September. Regrowth of cool-season plants may occur in September and October, depending upon soil moisture availability.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	83-104 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	115-130 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	19-30 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	70-115 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	111-135 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	19-30 in
Frost-free period (average)	93 days
Freeze-free period (average)	123 days
Precipitation total (average)	24 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 1. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 2. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 3. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 4. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 5. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 6. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) LEAD [USC00394834], Lead, SD
(2) SUNDANCE [USC00488705], Sundance, WY
(3) DEADWOOD 2NE [USC00392209], Whitewood, SD
(4) PACTOLA DAM [USC00396427], Rapid City, SD
(5) RAPID CITY 4NW [USC00396947], Rapid City, SD

Influencing water features

The Lowland-North ecological site will be associated with riparian areas and possible wetland features.

Wetland description

While not a true wetland, this site is susceptible to flooding and areas of increased moisture, and may show signs of wetland plants or high water tables.

Soil features

Soils common to the Lowland-North ecological site has a 4 to 20 inches thick silt loam to fine sandy loam surface layer. Sub-surface textures are fine sandy loam to loam. Slopes ranging from about 0 to 3 percent. The soils in this site are well drained and formed in stratified alluvium. They have a moderate to moderately slow infiltration rate. This site is on a low stream terrace and is occasionally flooded. Most vegetation has access to the water table.

This site typically should show slight to no evidence of rills, wind-scoured areas or pedestalled plants. If present, water flow paths are broken, irregular in appearance or discontinuous. The soil surface is stable and intact. Sub-surface soil layers are nonrestrictive to water movement and root penetration.

Major Soils correlated to the Lowland-North ecological site: Coaliams, Rockypoint, and Sodawells. These soils will typically have an occasionally to rarely flooded Local Phase, and a Flooding rating of occasional to rare.

These soils are mainly susceptible to water erosion. The hazard of water erosion increases on slopes greater than about 10 percent. Loss of 50 percent or more of the surface layer of the soils on this site can result in a shift in species composition and production.

More information regarding the soil is available in soil survey reports. Contact the local USDA Service Center for details specific to your area of interest, or go online to access USDA’s Web Soil Survey.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium
Surface texture	(1) Silt loam (2) Fine sandy loam (3) Loam
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to well drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderate
Depth to restrictive layer	80 in
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	15%
Surface fragment cover >3"	2%
Available water capacity (0-40in)	5 – 8 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in)	20%
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	8 mmhos/cm
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	4
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	5.1 – 9

Ecological dynamics

The vegetation in the Reference State (1.0) is a mix of grasses and grass-likes, forbs, shrubs, and tree. Vegetation in reference consists primarily of warm- and cool-season tall and mid grasses. Major grasses included big bluestem, switchgrass, green needlegrass, Indiangrass, and western wheatgrass. Forbs are common and very diverse. Patches of western snowberry, American plum, chokecherry, silver sage, and willow are almost always present. Green ash, boxelder, cottonwood, and in some locations bur oak, will occurred as scattered individuals to larger patches.

This site is susceptible to encroachment of ponderosa pine form the surrounding uplands and breaks and from the invasion of Russian olive. When disturbed, this site is very susceptible to invasion of non-native cool-season grasses, Canada thistle, hound’s tongue, and other weedy forbs.

Annual production numbers from this site need to be verified as they are borrowed from MLRA 61. Expect more production than LRU C. Only use what is contained in this guide as a rough estimate of potential.

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Native/Invaded State

3. Invaded State

4. Wooded Overstory State

5. Wooded Invaded State

T1A	-	Continuous season-long grazing; excessive haying; long-term light grazing; or no use and no fire; and the invasion of non-native cool-season grasses.
T1B	-	Flooding.
T2A	-	Continuous heavy grazing; excessive haying; or long-term light grazing will result in an increase in non-native cool-season grasses.
T2B	-	Flooding.
R3A	-	Long term prescribed grazing, prescribed burns.
T3A	-	Tree encroachment.
T4A	-	Fire; invasion of non-native, cool-season grasses; excessive haying; continuous season-long grazing.
T4B	-	Tree encroachment.
T5A	-	Fire, brush management.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Needlegrass/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Needlegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses (<15%)/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees

2.2. Rhizomatous Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%)-Big Bluestem/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees

2.1A	-	Continuous seasonal grazing.
2.2A	-	Prescribed grazing.

State 3 submodel, plant communities

3.1. Kentucky Bluegrass (>30%)-Smooth Brome/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees

3.2. Kentucky Bluegrass Sod/Remnant Shrubs/Trees/Weedy Annuals and Perennial Forbs

3.1A	-	Heavy, continuous seasonal grazing.
3.2A	-	Prescribed burning followed by prescribed grazing.

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Cottonwood/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grasses

4.2. Mature Cottonwood-Green Ash-Boxelder/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grass Understory

4.3. Green Ash-Boxelder/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grass Understory

4.1A	-	No flooding and long-term prescribed grazing .
4.2A	-	Flooding, and possibly fire.
4.2B	-	No flooding, no fire, and long-term prescribed grazing.
4.3A	-	Flooding, and possibly fire.

State 5 submodel, plant communities

5.1. Scattered Mature Native Trees-Russian Olive/Ponderosa Pine/Shrubs/Forbs/Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State represents what is believed to show the natural range of variability that dominated the dynamics of the ecological site prior to European settlement. Historically, this state ranged from a tall, warm-season grass dominated site to one dominated by deciduous shrubs, saplings, and trees depending upon disturbance regime. The primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included periodic fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing coupled with weather events dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Dominance during the herbaceous phases of this state shifted between warm-season and cool-season grasses. Although slight shifts may have occurred in timing of energy capture, hydrologic function, and nutrient cycling between plant community phases within the Reference State (1.0), overall the ecological processes were functioning at near optimum levels. High basal density and deep root systems resulted in low runoff rates and high infiltration rates. Areas of trees and shrubs existed within this state due to irregularity of burn patterns. Areas which escaped fire may have permitted trees and shrubs to become established. These areas may have served as a seed source for further expansion of the woody dominated plant communities as the fire frequency was altered after settlement.

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
American elm (Ulmus americana), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
American licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota), other herbaceous
sunflower (Helianthus), other herbaceous

Community 1.1
Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Needlegrass/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees

Interpretations are based primarily on the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Needlegrass/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees Plant Community. This is also considered to be the Reference Plant Community (1.1). This community evolved with grazing by large herbivores and occasional prairie fire. The vegetation was about 70 percent grasses and grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 10 percent trees. Major grasses included big bluestem, switchgrass, green needlegrass, Indiangrass, and western wheatgrass. Other grasses that occurred within this community included slender wheatgrass, thickspike wheatgrass, Canada wildrye, little bluestem, sideoats grama, and blue grama. Major forbs and shrubs included American licorice, sunflower, goldenrod, and western snowberry. Green ash, American elm, bur oak, and other native tree species occurred as scattered individuals to larger patches. This plant community was well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. Individual species varied greatly in production depending on growing conditions (timing and amount of precipitation and temperature). Community dynamics, nutrient cycle, water cycle, and energy flow were properly functioning. Due to the diversity of warm- and cool-season species within this plant community phase, energy capture was spread more evenly throughout the growing season compared to other plant community phases within this state. Plant litter was properly distributed in contact with the soil surface and with very little movement offsite. Natural plant mortality was very low. The diversity in plant species allowed for high drought tolerance. Runoff from adjacent sites and moderate or high available water capacity provided a favorable soil-water-plant relationship.

Figure 7. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 5. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1935	2480	2950
Shrub/Vine	155	240	350
Tree	155	240	350
Forb	155	240	350
Total	2400	3200	4000

Figure 8. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6104, Black Hills Foot Slopes, warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant. Warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1

State 2
Native/Invaded State

The Native/Invaded State (2.0) represents the more common range of variability that exists with higher levels of grazing management but in the absence of periodic fire due to fire suppression. The invasion of non-native cool-season grasses has also altered the natural range of variability for this ecological site. Currently this state is dominated by tall native warm-season grasses, but invasive introduced cool-season grasses are now present in all community phases of this state. It can be found on areas that are properly managed with grazing and/or prescribed burning, and sometimes on areas receiving occasional short periods of rest. Many times, this state appears as a mosaic of community phases caused primarily by continuous season-long grazing. Native cool- and warm-season species can decline and a corresponding increase in non-native cool-season grasses will occur. Non-native cool-season grasses will typically make up less than 15 percent of total annual production. Preliminary studies tend to indicate that when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition a threshold has been crossed to an Invaded State (5.0). These invaded plant communities that are dominated by Kentucky bluegrass will have significantly less cover and diversity of native grasses and forb species (Toledo, D. et al., 2014).

Dominant plant species

green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
American elm (Ulmus americana), tree
western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii), grass
switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), grass
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous
American licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota), other herbaceous

Community 2.1
Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Needlegrass-Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses (<15%)/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees

This plant community phase is similar to the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Needlegrass/Scattered Shrub /Scattered Trees Plant Community (1.1) but it also contains minor amounts of non-native invasive grass species such as Kentucky bluegrass. smooth brome, and possibly timothy (up to about 15 percent by air-dry weight). The potential vegetation is about 70 percent grasses or grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 10 percent mature trees. The community is dominated by warm-season grasses. Major grasses include big bluestem, switchgrass, green needlegrass, Indiangrass, and western wheatgrass. Other grasses that occur within this community include slender wheatgrass, thickspike wheatgrass, Canada wildrye, little bluestem, sideoats grama, and blue grama. Major forbs and shrubs include American licorice, sunflower, goldenrod, chokecherry, and western snowberry. Green ash, American elm, bur oak, and other native tree species occur as scattered individuals to larger patches. Ecological processes are functioning at levels near what would be expected for the Reference State (1.0) although nutrient cycling may be somewhat altered due to changes in disturbance regimes (lack of fire, frequency and intensity of grazing events) and energy capture may be shifted slightly to more late spring, early summer. This plant community is resilient and well adapted to the Northern Great Plains climatic conditions. The diversity in plant species allows for high drought tolerance. This is a sustainable plant community in regard to soil and site stability, watershed function, and biologic integrity.

Figure 9. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 6. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1765	2325	2825
Forb	145	225	325
Shrub/Vine	145	225	325
Tree	145	225	325
Total	2200	3000	3800

Figure 10. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6104, Black Hills Foot Slopes, warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant. Warm-season dominant, cool-season sub-dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		3	7	17	25	25	15	7	1

Community 2.2
Rhizomatous Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%)-Big Bluestem/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees

This plant community is characterized by a shift to mid-cool-season rhizomatous grasses with minor amounts of tall warm-season and mid-cool-season bunchgrasses. The vegetation is about 70 percent grasses and grass-like plants, 10 percent forbs, 10 percent shrubs, and 10 percent trees. Dominant grasses would include western wheatgrass and Kentucky bluegrass with minor amounts of needlegrasses, big bluestem, and switchgrass. Major forbs would include Cumin ragweed (western ragweed), goldenrods, and western yarrow. Chokecherry and snowberry would be the dominate shrubs. Green ash, plains cottonwood, and possibly bur oak will be present in most areas. Energy capture by this plant community phase has shifted from late spring and summer to early spring through early summer.

Figure 11. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 7. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1370	1783	2150
Shrub/Vine	110	172	250
Tree	110	172	250
Forb	110	173	250
Total	1700	2300	2900

Figure 12. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6102, Black Hills Foot Slopes, cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant. Cool-season dominant, warm-season sub-dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		3	10	23	34	15	6	5	4

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Continuous seasonal grazing which includes grazing at moderate to heavy stocking levels at the same time of year each year; or continuous season-long grazing; will shift this community (2.1) to the Rhizomatous Wheatgrass-Kentucky Bluegrass (<15%)/Shrubs/Scattered Trees Plant Community (2.2).

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Prescribed grazing (proper stocking levels, alternating season of use, and providing adequate recovery periods); possibly prescribed burning in combination with prescribed grazing; will convert this plant community (2.2) to the Big Bluestem-Switchgrass-Needlegrass-Rhizomatous-Non-Native Cool-Season Grass (<15%)/Shrubs/Scattered Trees Plant Community (2.1).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

State 3
Invaded State

This Invaded State (3.0) is the result of invasion and dominance of introduced species. The Invaded State is characterized by the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome, and an increasing thatch layer that effectively blocks introduction of other plants into the system. Plant litter accumulation tends to favor the more shade-tolerant, introduced grass species. The nutrient cycle is also impaired, and the result is typically a higher level of nitrogen, which also favors the introduced species. Increasing plant litter decreases the amount of sunlight reaching plant crowns, thereby shifting competitive advantage to shade-tolerant introduced grass species. Studies indicate that soil biological activity is altered, and this shift apparently exploits the soil microclimate and encourages growth of the introduced grass species. Once the threshold is crossed, a change in grazing management alone cannot cause a reduction in the invasive grass dominance. Preliminary studies would tend to indicate this threshold may exist when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30 percent and native grasses represent less than 40 percent of the plant community composition. Plant communities dominated by Kentucky bluegrass have significantly less cover and diversity of native grasses and forb species (Toledo, D., et al., 2014). Once this state is well established, even drastic events such as high intensity fires driven by high fuel loads of litter and thatch may not result in more than a very short-term reduction of Kentucky bluegrass. These events can reduce the dominance of Kentucky bluegrass, but due to the large amount of rhizomes in the soil, there is little opportunity for the native species to establish and dominate before Kentucky bluegrass rebounds and again dominates the system.

Dominant plant species

western snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
smooth brome (Bromus inermis), grass
white sagebrush (Artemisia ludoviciana), other herbaceous
goldenrod (Solidago), other herbaceous

Community 3.1
Kentucky Bluegrass (>30%)-Smooth Brome/Scattered Shrubs/Scattered Trees

This plant community phase is a result of heavy, continuous grazing, excessive haying, or extended periods of non-use and no fire. It is characterized by a dominance of Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome. The dominance is at times so complete that other species are difficult to find on the site. A thick duff layer also accumulates at or above the soil surface through non-use. Vegetative production can be variable in this plant community. The period that forage palatability is high is relatively short, as these cool-season species mature rapidly. Grasses constitute about 70 percent of the production with forbs contributing 10 percent, shrubs 10 percent, and trees 10 percent. Dominant forbs include white sagebrush (cudweed sagewort), goldenrod, and American licorice. Shrubs would include snowberry, plum, chokecherry, and prairie rose. Grazing pressure alone cannot induce a reduction in sodgrass dominance. Production is limited to the sod forming species. Infiltration continues to decrease, and runoff increases. Energy capture into the system is restricted to early season low producing species. The opportunity for high intensity spring burns is reduced by early green-up and increased moisture and humidity at the soil surface. Nutrient cycling is greatly reduced, and native plants have great difficulty becoming established.

Figure 13. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 8. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	1780	2175	2500
Shrub/Vine	140	290	450
Tree	140	218	325
Forb	140	217	325
Total	2200	2900	3600

Figure 14. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6101, Black Hills Foot Slopes, cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4

Community 3.2
Kentucky Bluegrass Sod/Remnant Shrubs/Trees/Weedy Annuals and Perennial Forbs

This plant community is characterized by a dense Kentucky bluegrass sod. Kentucky bluegrass is the dominant grass species with minor amounts of other grasses such as western wheatgrass and needlegrass, as well as, grass-likes still represented. Forb species would include curly-cup gumweed, western yarrow, and stiff goldenrod. Shrubs are very limited but may include snowberry. This plant community is resistant to change, and if disturbed, it is resilient. Bluegrass will increase under grazing pressure. Cool, moist climatic conditions will also tend to increase bluegrass production. The opportunity for spring burns can be limited due to lack of fine fuel and early green up. Production is reduced due to lack of plant vigor. Infiltration is greatly reduced due to the dense sod while energy capture is shifted to early spring through early summer.

Figure 15. Annual production by plant type (representative values) or group (midpoint values)

Table 9. Annual production by plant type

Plant type	Low (lb/acre)	Representative value (lb/acre)	High (lb/acre)
Grass/Grasslike	875	1120	1335
Forb	75	200	350
Shrub/Vine	75	160	250
Tree	75	120	165
Total	1100	1600	2100

Figure 16. Plant community growth curve (percent production by month). SD6101, Black Hills Foot Slopes, cool-season dominant. Cool-season dominant.

Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
		4	12	25	36	10	5	4	4

Pathway 3.1A
Community 3.1 to 3.2

Heavy, continuous seasonal grazing (stocking levels well above carrying capacity for extended portions of the growing season, and at the same time of year each year) or heavy, continuous season-long grazing will convert this plant community (3.1) to the Kentucky Bluegrass Sod/Remnant Shrubs/Trees/Weedy Annual and Perennial Forbs Plant Community (3.2).

Pathway 3.2A
Community 3.2 to 3.1

Prescribed burning followed by prescribed grazing (alternating season of use and providing adequate recovery periods) or periodic light to moderate grazing, possibly including periodic rest, may convert this plant community (3.2) to the Kentucky Bluegrass-Smooth Brome/Scattered Shrubs/Trees Plant Community (3.1).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

State 4
Wooded Overstory State

Historically, this state existed as small patches of trees and shrubs scattered across the site. Repeated intense disturbances (e.g., fire coupled with grazing) would have reverted these smaller patches of trees to the herbaceous dominated Reference State (1.0). In pre-European times, periodic low intensity fires typically would have maintained these small, wooded patches in a tree dominated state. Alterations to the historic fire and grazing disturbance regimes have resulted in these scattered tree/shrub patches forming almost continuous woody dominated plant communities across the site. This state is characterized by an overstory of tall trees, an understory of shrubs, and depending upon the amount of canopy cover, an herbaceous understory of grasses, sedges, and forbs. The dynamics of the Wooded Overstory State (4.0) are largely due to flooding and the natural successional changes, starting with cottonwood and shrub establishment, and eventually the development of a green ash and boxelder plant community. The successional process can restart following another flooding event. Water control structures which limit flooding, livestock grazing, heavy wildlife browse, fire, the introduction of non-native, cool-season grasses, and encroachment of juniper can alter the dynamics of this site, resulting in old remnant stands of trees with little, if any regeneration.

Dominant plant species

eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides), tree
American plum (Prunus americana), shrub
chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), shrub

Community 4.1
Cottonwood/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grasses

This plant community typically develops after a flooding event. Flooding reduces herbaceous competition through scouring and silt deposition at the soil surface, which provides a site for regeneration and establishment of cottonwood and shrubs. Long-term rest periods during the growing season will be required to allow cottonwood seedlings to reach a height which is out of reach of livestock. Late winter and early spring grazing will also need to be closely monitored to prevent grazing of cottonwood seedlings during early spring leaf development. Restricted grazing during late-summer and fall grazing when browsing is common is also necessary for this plant community to establish. Plains cottonwood develop quickly into a robust tree so grazing deferment may only be required for 3 to 4 years. Trees will range from seedlings to saplings, and the herbaceous understory will still be productive as a result of the filtered canopy of the deciduous trees. Understory shrubs, primarily plum, chokecherry, and snowberry will likely establish. However, other species, including silver buffaloberry, silver sagebrush, big sagebrush, and currants can occur and make up a significance percentage of the shrub layer.

Community 4.2
Mature Cottonwood-Green Ash-Boxelder/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grass Understory

This plant community develops over time with prescribed grazing and no flooding or fire. Mature cottonwood trees and woody shrubs provide a suitable microclimate for establishment of other deciduous trees. Green ash and boxelder are typically the first trees to establish, but other species such as hackberry and possibly bur oak will establish as well. Regeneration of woody species will normally be evident (i.e., seedlings and saplings should be present). The herbaceous plant community will remain relatively productive but will be reduced somewhat from the Reference Plant Community (1.1). This is due mainly to the competition from the woody shrub understory.

Community 4.3
Green Ash-Boxelder/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grass Understory

This plant community develops over time, with prescribed grazing and no flooding. Mature cottonwood trees will likely remain in lesser numbers, but the dominant trees will normally consist of green ash and boxelder. At times there will be a mix of all three species; however, some areas will be dominated by one or two of these species. Woody shrubs will remain in the understory, but typically in lesser amounts than in the previous two plant communities. While somewhat reduced, the herbaceous understory will remain relatively productive. The trees will mostly be in the mature stage, but regeneration will normally be evident (i.e., seedlings and saplings should be present).

Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2

No flooding and long-term prescribed grazing that manages the herbaceous understory, but is not detrimental to woody regeneration, will allow this plant community (4.1) to develop into the Mature Cottonwood-Immature Green Ash-Boxelder/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grass Understory Plant Community (4.2). Existing saplings must be large enough to avoid damage by livestock and wildlife for this pathway to occur.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1

Flooding, and possibly fire, which opens-up the herbaceous understory and allows for woody regeneration, followed by long-term prescribed grazing that manages for woody regeneration and establishment will shift this plant community (4.2) back to the Cottonwood/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grasses Plant Community (4.1).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 4.2B
Community 4.2 to 4.3

No flooding, no fire, and long-term prescribed grazing that manages the herbaceous understory but is not detrimental to woody regeneration, and time will transition this plant community (4.2) to the Green Ash-Boxelder/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grass Understory Plant Community (4.3).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Pathway 4.3A
Community 4.3 to 4.1

Flooding, and possibly fire, which opens up the herbaceous understory and allows for woody regeneration, followed by long-term prescribed grazing that manages for woody regeneration and establishment will shift this plant community (4.3) back to the Cottonwood/Prunus-Snowberry/Forbs/Grasses Plant Community (4.1).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

State 5
Wooded Invaded State

The Woody Invaded State develops as a result of continuous season-long grazing, or continuous seasonal grazing and no fire combined with the invasion and establishment of Russian olive, saltcedar, or conifer trees. With time, the cottonwood, boxelder, and ash trees that survive become mature, with little or no regeneration. This is due mainly to grazing of seedlings and saplings. Wildlife browse can also contribute to the loss of native tree and shrub regeneration. Grazing that limits regeneration also results in a reduction of the desirable native herbaceous species, often resulting in a dominance of species such as bluegrass and smooth brome, and forbs such as western ragweed, Canada thistle, burdock, and hound’s tongue.

Dominant plant species

Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), tree
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), tree
cottonwood (Populus), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
tamarisk (Tamarix), shrub

Community 5.1
Scattered Mature Native Trees-Russian Olive/Ponderosa Pine/Shrubs/Forbs/Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses

This plant community developed due to the lack of natural occurring flooding events, native woody regeneration, and continuous season-long grazing without adequate recovery periods. Older mature trees remain, including cottonwood, boxelder, and green ash. The trees are scattered, and the site may have a “park-like” appearance with few trees and reduced understory. If grazed during the winter, the increased durations of livestock loitering can result in manure accumulations and soil compaction which will reduce the vigor of the native understory plant community. Kentucky bluegrass and smooth brome continue to persist as dominant grass species at reduced production rates. The presence of non-desirable forb species such as Canada thistle, burdock, and hound’s tongue can be prolific and difficult to control. When invaded by Russian olive and/or saltcedar these species will increase dramatically over time and will eventually dominate the site.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

Continuous season-long grazing; excessive haying; long-term light grazing; or no use and no fire; and the invasion of non-native cool-season grasses will transition the Reference State (1.0) to the Native/Invaded State (2.0).

Transition T1B
State 1 to 4

Flooding, which opens the herbaceous understory and allows for woody establishment; no fire; long-term prescribed grazing to promote tree survival; and an extended period of time will transition the Reference State (1.0) to the Wooded Overstory State (4.0).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

Continuous heavy grazing; excessive haying; or long-term light grazing will result in an increase in non-native cool-season grasses and cause a transition from the Native/Invaded State (2.0) to the Invaded State (3.0). Extended periods of non-use and no fire, and heavy litter build-up will favor non-natives cool-season grasses transition this state to the Invaded State (3.0).

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

Flooding, which opens the herbaceous understory and allows for woody establishment; no fire; long-term prescribed grazing to promote tree survival; and an extended period of time will transition the Native/Invaded State (2.0) to the Wooded Overstory State (4.0).

Conservation practices

Prescribed Grazing

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

Long-term prescribed grazing (moderate stocking levels coupled with adequate recovery periods, or other grazing systems intended to treat specific species dominance, or periodic light to moderate stocking levels, possibly including periodic rest) may lead the Invaded State (3.0) over a threshold to the Native/Invaded State (2.0). Prescribed burning may also be needed to suppress cool-season invasive grasses. This will likely take a long period of time, possibly up to ten years or more, and recovery may not be attainable. Success depends upon whether native reproductive propagules remain intact on the site.

Conservation practices

Prescribed Burning
Prescribed Grazing

Transition T3A
State 3 to 5

Encroachment of juniper trees from upland sites, or invasion of non-native deciduous trees; no fire for extended periods of time; continuous season-long grazing, or continuous seasonal grazing, and time; will cause a transition from the Invaded State (3.0) to the Wooded Invaded State (5.0). Canopy cover increases as trees increase in size, which alters microclimate and reduces fine fuel amounts, resulting in reduced fire intensity and frequency.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

Fire; invasion of non-native, cool-season grasses; excessive haying; continuous season-long grazing or continuous seasonal grazing resulting in little woody regeneration; and time; will transition the Wooded Overstory State (4.0) to the Native/Invaded State (2.0).

Transition T4B
State 4 to 5

Encroachment of juniper from upland sites, and/or invasion of non-native deciduous trees, coupled with no fire and continuous season-long grazing or continuous seasonal grazing will transition the Wooded Overstory State (4.0) to the Wooded Invaded State (5.0).

Transition T5A
State 5 to 3

Fire, brush management to remove Russian olive; continuous season-long grazing; or continuous seasonal grazing will transition the Wooded Invaded State (5.0) to the Invaded State (3.0).

Conservation practices

Brush Management

Additional community tables

Table 10. Community 1.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-Season Grasses			800–1600
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	640–1280	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	160–800	–
	Indiangrass	SONU2	Sorghastrum nutans	0–320	–
2	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			160–640
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	160–640	–
	Columbia needlegrass	ACNE9	Achnatherum nelsonii	0–160	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–160	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–160	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–160	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–160	–
	Sandberg bluegrass	POSE	Poa secunda	0–64	–
3	Rhizomatous Wheatgrass			160–320
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	160–320	–
	thickspike wheatgrass	ELLAL	Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus	0–160	–
4	Mid- Warm-Season Grasses			64–160
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	32–160	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	32–160	–
5	Short Warm-Season Grasses			32–160
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	32–160	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–96	–
	mat muhly	MURI	Muhlenbergia richardsonis	0–64	–
6	Other Native Grasses			32–160
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–160	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	32–96	–
	fowl bluegrass	POPA2	Poa palustris	0–96	–
7	Grass-likes			32–160
	Sprengel's sedge	CASP7	Carex sprengelii	32–160	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–96	–
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	32–96	–
8	Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses			0
Forb
9	Forbs			160–320
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	32–160	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	32–96	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	32–96	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	32–96	–
	vervain	VERBE	Verbena	32–64	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–64	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	32–64	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	32–64	–
	white prairie aster	SYFA	Symphyotrichum falcatum	32–64	–
	wild bergamot	MOFI	Monarda fistulosa	0–64	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–64	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–64	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	32–64	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	32–64	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	32–64	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–64	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0–32	–
	starry false lily of the valley	MAST4	Maianthemum stellatum	0–32	–
	northern bedstraw	GABO2	Galium boreale	0–32	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–32	–
Shrub/Vine
10	Shrubs			160–320
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	32–160	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–160	–
	silver sagebrush	ARCA13	Artemisia cana	0–96	–
	American plum	PRAM	Prunus americana	32–96	–
	chokecherry	PRVI	Prunus virginiana	32–96	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–96	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	32–64	–
	silver buffaloberry	SHAR	Shepherdia argentea	0–64	–
	hawthorn	CRATA	Crataegus	0–32	–
Tree
11	Trees			160–320
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–256	–
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–256	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–160	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–160	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–160	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–115	–

Table 11. Community 2.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-Season Grasses			600–1200
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	450–1200	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–450	–
2	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			150–600
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	150–600	–
	Columbia needlegrass	ACNE9	Achnatherum nelsonii	0–150	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–150	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–150	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–150	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–150	–
	Sandberg bluegrass	POSE	Poa secunda	0–60	–
3	Rhizomatous Wheatgrass			150–300
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	150–300	–
	thickspike wheatgrass	ELLAL	Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus	0–150	–
4	Mid- Warm-Season Grasses			60–150
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	30–150	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	30–150	–
5	Short Warm-Season Grasses			30–150
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	30–150	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–90	–
	mat muhly	MURI	Muhlenbergia richardsonis	0–60	–
6	Other Native Grasses			30–150
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–150	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	30–90	–
	fowl bluegrass	POPA2	Poa palustris	0–90	–
7	Grass-Likes			30–150
	Sprengel's sedge	CASP7	Carex sprengelii	30–150	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–90	–
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	30–90	–
8	Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses			150–450
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	60–300	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	0–300	–
	timothy	PHPR3	Phleum pratense	0–150	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–60	–
	field brome	BRAR5	Bromus arvensis	0–60	–
Forb
9	Forbs			150–300
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	30–150	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	30–150	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	30–90	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	30–90	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	30–90	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–60	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	30–60	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	30–60	–
	vervain	VERBE	Verbena	30–60	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–60	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	30–60	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	30–60	–
	white prairie aster	SYFA	Symphyotrichum falcatum	30–60	–
	wild bergamot	MOFI	Monarda fistulosa	0–60	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–60	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	30–60	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–60	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0–30	–
	northern bedstraw	GABO2	Galium boreale	0–30	–
	beardtongue	PENST	Penstemon	0–30	–
	starry false lily of the valley	MAST4	Maianthemum stellatum	0–30	–
Shrub/Vine
10	Shrubs			150–300
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–150	–
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	30–150	–
	American plum	PRAM	Prunus americana	30–90	–
	chokecherry	PRVI	Prunus virginiana	30–90	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–90	–
	silver sagebrush	ARCA13	Artemisia cana	0–90	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	30–60	–
	silver buffaloberry	SHAR	Shepherdia argentea	0–60	–
	hawthorn	CRATA	Crataegus	0–30	–
Tree
11	Trees			150–300
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–240	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–150	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–150	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–150	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–115	–
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–46	–

Table 12. Community 2.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-Season Grasses			115–345
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	46–345	–
	switchgrass	PAVI2	Panicum virgatum	0–69	–
2	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			46–230
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	46–230	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	0–115	–
	Sandberg bluegrass	POSE	Poa secunda	0–46	–
	Canada wildrye	ELCA4	Elymus canadensis	0–46	–
	porcupinegrass	HESP11	Hesperostipa spartea	0–46	–
	needle and thread	HECOC8	Hesperostipa comata ssp. comata	0–46	–
3	Rhizomatous Wheatgrass			230–575
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	230–575	–
	thickspike wheatgrass	ELLAL	Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus	0–46	–
4	Mid- Warm-Season Grasses			0–115
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–115	–
	sideoats grama	BOCU	Bouteloua curtipendula	0–69	–
5	Short Warm-Season Grasses			46–230
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	46–230	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–115	–
	mat muhly	MURI	Muhlenbergia richardsonis	0–69	–
6	Other Native Grasses			23–115
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–115	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	23–69	–
	fowl bluegrass	POPA2	Poa palustris	0–46	–
7	Grass-likes			46–230
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	46–230	–
	Sprengel's sedge	CASP7	Carex sprengelii	23–230	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–115	–
8	Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses			230–575
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	46–345	–
	timothy	PHPR3	Phleum pratense	0–230	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	115–230	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–115	–
	field brome	BRAR5	Bromus arvensis	0–115	–
Forb
9	Forbs			115–230
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–92	–
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	23–92	–
	vervain	VERBE	Verbena	23–69	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	23–69	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	23–69	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	23–69	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	23–69	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	23–46	–
	white prairie aster	SYFA	Symphyotrichum falcatum	0–46	–
	wild bergamot	MOFI	Monarda fistulosa	0–46	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	23–46	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–46	–
	purple prairie clover	DAPU5	Dalea purpurea	0–23	–
	American vetch	VIAM	Vicia americana	0–23	–
	Maximilian sunflower	HEMA2	Helianthus maximiliani	0–23	–
	dotted blazing star	LIPU	Liatris punctata	0–23	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–23	–
	scarlet beeblossom	GACO5	Gaura coccinea	0	–
Shrub/Vine
10	Shrubs			115–230
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	23–161	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–115	–
	silver sagebrush	ARCA13	Artemisia cana	23–69	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	23–46	–
	silver buffaloberry	SHAR	Shepherdia argentea	0–46	–
	American plum	PRAM	Prunus americana	23–46	–
	chokecherry	PRVI	Prunus virginiana	23–46	–
	leadplant	AMCA6	Amorpha canescens	0–23	–
	hawthorn	CRATA	Crataegus	0–23	–
Tree
11	Trees			115–230
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–184	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–115	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–115	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–115	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–115	–
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–46	–

Table 13. Community 3.1 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-Season Grasses			29–145
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	29–145	–
2	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			29–145
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	29–145	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	29–58	–
3	Rhizomatous Wheatgrass			29–290
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	29–290	–
	thickspike wheatgrass	ELLAL	Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus	29–290	–
4	Mid- Warm-Season Grasses			29–145
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	29–145	–
5	Short Warm-Season Grasses			0–145
	mat muhly	MURI	Muhlenbergia richardsonis	0–406	–
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	0–116	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–29	–
6	Other Native Grasses			0–145
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–145	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–58	–
	fowl bluegrass	POPA2	Poa palustris	0–58	–
7	Grass-Likes			29–290
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	29–290	–
	Sprengel's sedge	CASP7	Carex sprengelii	0–232	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–145	–
8	Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses			870–1885
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	435–1740	–
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	290–1160	–
	timothy	PHPR3	Phleum pratense	145–725	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	29–290	–
	field brome	BRAR5	Bromus arvensis	0–145	–
Forb
9	Forbs			145–290
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	29–232	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	29–116	–
	vervain	VERBE	Verbena	29–87	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	29–87	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–87	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	29–58	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	29–58	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	29–58	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	29–58	–
	white prairie aster	SYFA	Symphyotrichum falcatum	0–29	–
	wild bergamot	MOFI	Monarda fistulosa	0–29	–
	wavyleaf thistle	CIUN	Cirsium undulatum	0–29	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–29	–
Shrub/Vine
10	Shrubs			145–435
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	29–435	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–87	–
	silver sagebrush	ARCA13	Artemisia cana	29–87	–
	American plum	PRAM	Prunus americana	0–58	–
	chokecherry	PRVI	Prunus virginiana	0–58	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–58	–
	silver buffaloberry	SHAR	Shepherdia argentea	0–29	–
Tree
11	Trees			145–290
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–232	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–145	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–145	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–145	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–145	–
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–58	–

Table 14. Community 3.2 plant community composition

Group	Common name	Symbol	Scientific name	Annual production (lb/acre)	Foliar cover (%)
Grass/Grasslike
1	Tall Warm-Season Grasses			0–80
	big bluestem	ANGE	Andropogon gerardii	0–80	–
2	Cool-Season Bunchgrass			16–35
	green needlegrass	NAVI4	Nassella viridula	1–32	–
	slender wheatgrass	ELTR7	Elymus trachycaulus	1–32	–
3	Rhizomatous Wheatgrass			16–80
	western wheatgrass	PASM	Pascopyrum smithii	1–80	–
	thickspike wheatgrass	ELLAL	Elymus lanceolatus ssp. lanceolatus	1–80	–
4	Mid- Warm-Season Grasses			0–80
	little bluestem	SCSC	Schizachyrium scoparium	0–80	–
5	Short Warm-season Grasses			32–240
	blue grama	BOGR2	Bouteloua gracilis	2–192	–
	hairy grama	BOHI2	Bouteloua hirsuta	0–80	–
	mat muhly	MURI	Muhlenbergia richardsonis	0–80	–
6	Other Native Grasses			0–80
	Grass, perennial	2GP	Grass, perennial	0–64	–
	prairie Junegrass	KOMA	Koeleria macrantha	0–32	–
	fowl bluegrass	POPA2	Poa palustris	0–16	–
7	Grass-Likes			80–320
	clustered field sedge	CAPR5	Carex praegracilis	5–288	–
	Sprengel's sedge	CASP7	Carex sprengelii	0–128	–
	Grass-like (not a true grass)	2GL	Grass-like (not a true grass)	0–80	–
8	Non-Native Cool-Season Grasses			400–1040
	Kentucky bluegrass	POPR	Poa pratensis	20–640	–
	smooth brome	BRIN2	Bromus inermis	1–240	–
	timothy	PHPR3	Phleum pratense	5–160	–
	cheatgrass	BRTE	Bromus tectorum	0–80	–
	field brome	BRAR5	Bromus arvensis	0–80	–
Forb
9	Forbs			80–320
	Forb, introduced	2FI	Forb, introduced	1–240	–
	vervain	VERBE	Verbena	1–80	–
	white sagebrush	ARLU	Artemisia ludoviciana	1–80	–
	goldenrod	SOLID	Solidago	1–80	–
	scurfpea	PSORA2	Psoralidium	1–64	–
	Cuman ragweed	AMPS	Ambrosia psilostachya	1–64	–
	western yarrow	ACMIO	Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis	1–64	–
	Forb, native	2FN	Forb, native	0–48	–
	American licorice	GLLE3	Glycyrrhiza lepidota	0–32	–
	upright prairie coneflower	RACO3	Ratibida columnifera	0–16	–
	white prairie aster	SYFA	Symphyotrichum falcatum	0–16	–
	wild bergamot	MOFI	Monarda fistulosa	0–16	–
Shrub/Vine
10	Shrubs			80–240
	western snowberry	SYOC	Symphoricarpos occidentalis	2–240	–
	silver sagebrush	ARCA13	Artemisia cana	1–80	–
	Shrub (>.5m)	2SHRUB	Shrub (>.5m)	0–48	–
	rose	ROSA5	Rosa	0–32	–
Tree
11	Trees			80–160
	green ash	FRPE	Fraxinus pennsylvanica	0–128	–
	boxelder	ACNE2	Acer negundo	0–80	–
	plains cottonwood	PODEM	Populus deltoides ssp. monilifera	0–80	–
	Tree	2TREE	Tree	0–80	–
	bur oak	QUMA2	Quercus macrocarpa	0–80	–
	American elm	ULAM	Ulmus americana	0–32	–

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS clipping data and other inventory data. Field observations from range-trained personnel were also used. Those involved in developing this site include: Stan Boltz, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Cynthia Englebert, Range Management Specialist, Forest Service; George Gamblin, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Ryan Murray, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Cheryl Nielsen, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; L. Michael Stirling, Range Management Specialist, NRCS; Jim Westerman, Soil Scientist, NRCS.

Other references

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2018. EPA level III and level IV ecoregions of the conterminous United States. https://www.epa.gov/eco-research/level-iii-and-iv-ecoregions- conterminous-united-states (accessed 26 April 2018).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2020. Electronic field office technical guide. https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov (accessed 11 June 2020).

Soil Survey Staff. 2019. Official soil series descriptions. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/home/?cid=nrcs142p2_053587 (accessed 16 June 2020).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2023. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. Agriculture Handbook 296. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_050898.pdf (accessed 27 January 2018).

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, and W.H McNab. 2007. Ecological subregions: Sections and subsections of the conterminous United States. USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report WO-76D. https://www.fs.fed.us/research/publications/misc/73326-wo-gtr-76d-cleland2007.pdf (accessed 31 January 2019).

Cowardin, L.M., V. Carter, F.C. Golet, and E.T. LaRoe. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deep-water habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-79/31.
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Larson, Gary E. and James R. Johnson. 1999. Plants of the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains. South Dakota State University, College of Agriculture and Biological Sciences and Agriculture Experiment Station, Bulletin 732, Brookings, SD.

Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Invasive Plant Science and Management. 7(4):543–522. Weed Science Society of America.

Soil Survey Staff. 2018. Web Soil Survey. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx (accessed 20 December 2018).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2014. National ecological site handbook, 1st ed. https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/ref/?cid=nrcseprd1291232 (accessed 27 January 2018).

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2012. National engineering handbook, part 630. Hydrology chapters from e-Directives. https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/viewerFS.aspx?hid=21422 (accessed 17 January 2018).

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Contributors

Rick Peterson, Ecologist, NRCS
Ezra Hoffman, Ecologist, NRCS

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 2/06/2025

Acknowledgments

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Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	02/06/2025
Approved by	Suzanne Mayne-Kinney
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production